AD set was recently grammaticalized from nouns; the origins of 1SG, 3SG and 3PL are not entirely clear (but Burquest 1973 explicitly comments on the nominal behavior of the cognate 3SG and 3PL forms in Angas).
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In any case, it is likely that they developed from the free forms.
POSS 'This mango (tree), when (it) gave birth to its little fruit.
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NEG 'But we, we don't know (it).
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SP set is additionally used in a second context: as possessors in noun phrases occurring in direct object (in 19a and 19c) and adverbial functions (in 19b).
HAB beat HAB 'The Goemai (person I people) used to play (it).
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SP' in 18b), and in other cases they are proclitics to the TAM particle (in the second occurrence ofjf'SGM.
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It is, however, restricted to possessive contexts.
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Goemai group are native elements: Frajzyngier (1993: 118) hypothesizes that the LOG.
So far, its usage is restricted to the possessive forms.
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For example, speakers interchangeably use the nouns sh'ep 'wood' (in 31a above) and t'eng 'tree' (in 32a below); alternatively, they can choose to not restrict the reference at all, and to leave the interpretation open to contextual information (in 32b).
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In Goemai, the dependent forms are often phonetically reduced, and both forms have similar restrictions in that they cannot be modified.
INTERR '(He 1 asked her2) would she2 be able to do this work?
However, given their overall scarcity within Chadic, they are likely to be innovations.
It expresses the diminutive when not referring to a mass (in 25a), but quantification when referring to a mass (in 25b).
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This distribution is the same for both the free and the dependent forms; and it is also found with subject nouns.
For Goemai, this tendency is possibly true in the case of demonstrative, anaphoric and definite expressions: they serve to add emphasis to a pronominal referent (but not to a nominal referent).
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SP set: its nominal origins are still discemable, and it does not have bound possessive suffixes (in the free possessive and reflexive sets), which are presumably reflexes of an older pronominal system.
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Two sets of subject pronouns.
AD set seems to be more recent than that of the LOG.
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COMIT worrying 'I am a poor person (and) I arrive with worries.
In all possessive contexts above, the use of the logophoric pronoun is optional.
GEN moto muk car 3SG.
It is more likely that the syntactic distribution results from different diachronic origins.
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In addition, a free and a dependent form can cooccur (in 16c and 16d).
SP set may have developed from demonstrative pronouns, while the LOG.
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There are, however, reasons to analyze the diminutive differently.
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In other cases, however, the attested interpretations are identical to those of modified nouns.
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DEF Then (she) picked up the child.
By contrast, the segmental shapes of the free pronouns, the possessive modifiers and the dependent pronouns are largely identical (and table 35 illustrates their overlap by means of shading).
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When referring to humans, its presence adds connotations of pity (as in 25c).
The following characteristics of the Goemai pronominal system are of particular interest: (i) the expression of gender, (ii) the distribution of free and dependent forms, and (iii) logophoricity.
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They cooccur for reasons of emphasis only (see also l8c below), and the free pronoun can be modified (in l7c) or conjoined with another noun phrase (in l7d).
Conjoining nouns and noun phrases.
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The personal pronouns are summarized in table (35).
DEF small 'You find a bit of money, a little bit.
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This could suggest that the dependent pronouns are of a more recent origin.
Nouns and the noun phrase.
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In the case of 3SG human referents, this pattern is attested, too, albeit less frequently (see the first clause in l8c for a 3SG example).
This use extends to all types of possessives: the possessive pronoun can either be a modifier within the noun phrase (in 19a and 19b) or a suffix bound to the root (in 19c).
One of these strategies is the genitive construction with a generic noun as its possessee (as illustrated in 31a and 31b).
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In both constructions, the nouns have some independence with regard to modification.
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Both serve grammatical functions: 'own' is used to form the independent pos27.
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AD' in (l8a) precedes the irrealis particle t'ong and is not repeated with the sequential particle goe.
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As in Goemai, the genitive construction is attested with any type of possessive relationship.
Ok 'small' in (25b).
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Subject pronouns of set l differ from those of set 2 not only in the optionality of their dependent form, but also in their syntactic position.
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And the dependent subject pronouns are cliticized to the verb phrase (see the discussion below).
POSS know NEG 'His neighbors didn't know (it).
Dorok Goemai, we come from the south.
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Again, the free pronouns usually occur in their own intonation unit (in l7c and l7d).
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Genitive constructions are formed by juxtaposing two (or more) nouns, with the possessed preceding the possessor (in 26a).
First, Goemai distinguishes gender only in 2so, but not in 3SG.
TAM particles (in 16b and 16d).
POSS well '(She) found here a child of the goat (that) just ran (and) came out in his full strength.
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PROGR 'The crab is guarding the eggs of the fish.
Complex nominal heads Goemai joins nouns by means of either the genitive construction or the proprietary construction.
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For example, when occurring in direct object function, both nouns precede particles that indicate the final boundary of a direct object noun phrase (such as the progressive particle yi in 30).
The nouns form the complex head of a single noun phrase.
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NEG 'Because we (who are of) Kwande, we don't like any problems, we don't like any problems.
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Mupun also distinguishes pronouns on the basis of their position in multiverb constructions.
POSS NEG 'I, I don't know their names.
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Similar properties are attested in languages that have anaphone agreement (in the sense of Bresnan and Mchombo 1987: 41).
It seems that Goemai has the option to incorporate pronouns into the verb phrase, in which case a free form (in l6c and l6d) or a noun (in l6g) can be added in a peripheral slot.
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The construction is additionally used to restrict the reference of nouns.
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Subject pronouns of set 1 can occur either in their free form (in 16a) or in their dependent form (in 16b).
Furthermore, the development of the LOG.
SP set are not clear.
Notice also that the free form in such a case tends to occur in a separate intonation unit (in 16c and 16d).
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Cbadic origin, but Schuh (1983) mpes for a later grammaticalization 28.
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